In the Socratic literature, Socrates was arguably the most influential philosopher of antiquity. He did not write anything, but his influence is at the origin of the so-called Socratic literature. It’s a collection of books written by Socratic followers. By reading Socratic literature, we discover philosophy. Plato’s interpretation of Socrates is the one most familiar to us today. Socrates is often credited to a revolution in the orientation of philosophy. He first called philosophy down from heaven, and set her in cities, introduced into men’s home, and compelled philosophy to investigate life, customs, good and evil.

Wisdom

In the Platonic account, Socrates denies that he possesses any sort of wisdom. He does not possess SOPHIA, what he calls “non-human wisdom”. It is a greater than human knowledge, since it is impractical and about divine things. Socrates does not categorically deny that it is possible for human beings to possess such wisdom. For instance, the sophists and the natural philosophers possess it, but he denies that he possesses. Socrates does not possesses knowledge except of knowing that he does not have knowledge. He has limits to what he knows. In other words, he possesses human knowledge that is limited. He is the lover of wisdom.

In the Aristophanic notion, Socratic wisdom consists in the knowledge about self-cultivation and self-control. He is not shy about his interest in education and teaching. He is interested in morality and ethics. He is teaching a virtue, endurance and frugality.

Self-sufficiency

In the Xenophon’s version, the oracle declares that no-one is more free, more just, more temperate than Socrates. Socrates is given an example of a rational life, namely a model of skills to become self-sufficient. First, to live ideal life, you should be free from being constrained or impeded by any external circumstances. In this context, you should be free from pleasure and pain or free from everything that is not strictly necessary as money and reputation. It is easy to see that temperance and freedom are closely related. We cannot be free unless we have self-control. Finally, if you are less dependent upon money and reputation because you have self-control, you are less likely to do something wrong. Freedom, self-control, and justice lead to autonomy and self-sufficiency.

In Plato’s version, the oracle declares that on-one is wiser than Socrates. Socrates believes that god is conveying something true, so he starts his examination of the claims to wisdom. He realizes that those who thinks they are wise are not wise at all. Consequently, Socrates performs his service to the god, that is to seek out those who think they are wise and to show them that they are not. Because of this occupation, he does not have the leisure to engage in public affairs, nor to look after his own. As a result, he lives in a great poverty, because of knowledge that he does not know.

Poverty is regarded as an ethical project of self-cultivation. In Xenophon’s version, poverty is a way of organizing one’s life to achieve long-term and stable happiness through autonomy and self-sufficiency. When one is poor, s/he is living an ideal life, that is free from being constrained or impeded by any external circumstances. In other words, living in poverty is being free from pain and pleasure or being free from everything that is not strictly necessary like money and reputation.

Ascetism is an extreme version of the Socratic philosophy. The goal of askesis is to promote free life, a life without any comfort, that is a plain, natural life. To arrive at this particular condition, Diogenes trained himself to drink only water, sleep on the ground, eat and dress simply. He trained himself to overcome poverty, exile, hunger, and death. Freedom of speech, cosmopolitanism, shamelessness are also prominent features of askesis.

Death

Either the death is nothing and have no perception of anything, or it is a change and a relocating for the soul from here to another place. If it is a complete lack of perception, like a dreamless sleep, then death would be a greater advantage. If, on the other hand, death is a change from here to another place, what greater blessing could there be? Hence, we should not fear death. This is an example how Socrates deliberates in the absence of knowledge.

In Plato’s Apology, Socrates does not fear death, because he does not know it. To fear death is no other than to think oneself wise when one is not, to think one knows what one does not know. No one knows whether death may not be the greatest of all blessings for a man, yet men fear it as if they know that it is the greatest of evils. In order to fear X, you need to know that X is bad. So, it is not rational of Socrates to fear things which he does not know.

In Plato’s Phaedo, it is impossible to attain any pure knowledge with the body, since it is an obstacle in the search for knowledge. For instance, senses can hardly be accurate. Whenever philosopher attempts to examine anything with the body, he is clearly deceived by it. On the other hand, any reality becomes clear to the soul. Then, either we can never attain knowledge or we can do so after death. Consequently, true philosophers do not fear death, because it is a separation of the soul from the body.

In Xenophon’s version, Socrates is indifferent to death, since it is an external circumstance that does not have influence on happiness. Socrates wants to die, because his life is complete, perfect. It lacks nothing. That’s why he does not fear death.

Law

Socrates is a rational agent who believes that we should never do wrong willingly in any way to anyone. If Socrates escaped from prison, he would hurt the city, since the city cannot survive when verdicts of its courts have not force, but nullified. So, it is wrong to disobey one’s superior, be he a man or god. However, the laws are not infallible. We may disagree, but we should persuade our fellow citizens that the verdict or the laws are wrong. If the individual citizen fails to persuade the laws, s/he has to obey the laws, even if the laws are making a mistake. Socrates is acting according to his principle what is right or wrong. He is not acting based on consequences.

Bibliography:

  • Aristophanes, Clouds. Translated with notes by Peter Meineck; Introduction by Ian C. Storey (Hacket 2000).
  • Plato, Five Dialogues (Euthypro, Apology, Crito, Meno, Phaedo); translated by G. M. A. Grube (Hacket 2002).
  • Plato, Symposium, translated by Paul Woodruff and Alexander Nehamas (Hacket 1989).
  • Xenophon, Conversations of Socrates, translated by Hugh Tredennick (Penguin 1990).